The basic idea of iron-based ocean fertilization (see Figure 1) is to add iron to the upper ocean to stimulate biological activity and increase photosynthetic activity, and thus generate more organic carbon—removing it from the surface. Because at these depths liquid CO2 is less dense than seawater, the droplets would float upward and dissolve rather quickly. The tracer plume that would result from disposal would be detectable by techniques common to recovering the fossil-fuel signal from oceanic observations. Science 284: 943–945. 2001. The hypothesis was that, when CO2 was released in liquid form it would quickly break up into small droplets. 2) Determine how quickly CO2 can be stabilized to prevent extinction of coral reefs and flooding of low-lying coasts, based on quantity and quality (long-lived fraction) of soil carbon sequestration and global atmospheric CO2 input-output models. Macronutrient strategies would be considerably more expensive. As every participant has said during these meetings, a large part of the cost of sequestration is in the initial capture of CO2. What is the cost? Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. • Fringing reefs: They follow the coastline, maintaining an active growth area offshore and an accumulation of dead coral inshore, forming a platform reef that over time turns into a lagoon. We may decide to do it, however, if it turns out that the adverse environmental consequences of putting it somewhere else are worse. FIGURE 1 Options for direct ocean disposal of CO2. This scheme formed the basis of a very fine modeling effort carried out by the Bergen group in Norway (Alendal and Drange, 2001; Drange et al., 2001). One early discovery with this simulation was that, after only three years, CO2 would already begin to leak back into the atmosphere. In itself, it won’t solve the problem. Two-phase near field modeling of purposefully released CO2 in the ocean. Some surfaces in the deep ocean are not well ventilated, so even though more organic carbon is being transported, more carbon is retained in those areas. Rau. Wallace, D.W.R. It is essential that we know the effects of increased oceanic concentrations of CO2, even if we decide to put it into the atmosphere. When CO 2 levels reached ∼340 ppm, sporadic but highly destructive mass bleaching occurred in most reefs world-wide, often associated with El Niño events. Ellias Y Feng (), David P Keller, Wolfgang Koeve et al.-Sensitivity of ocean acidification and oxygen to the uncertainty in climate change Long Cao, Shuangjing Wang, Meidi Zheng et al.-Earth system commitments due to delayed mitigation Patrik L Pfister and Thomas F Stocker-Recent citations Coral reefs produce some of the oxygen we breathe. And what are the environmental impacts? Higher velocities in the bulk fluid reduce the thickness of this layer and accelerate dissolution. Models are helpful for clarifying conceptual situations, but a model is only as good as the basic knowledge that goes into it, and most models include many unknowns. At 400 years, net additional storage is about half a gigaton per year. These simulations suggest that, after fertilizing the southern ocean for a century, it would be possible to store carbon in a range of 100 gigatons to 250 gigatons. Although various animals moved closeby, there was no recorded interaction or perturbation in their behavior. If we add in Coral reefs, contributing another 111 million tons, … Thus, ocean fertilization provides only temporary storage. saturated, molecular-boundary layer controlled by diffusion. On geoengineering and the CO2 problem. This report contains presentations of a symposium held in April of 2002. By exceptionally dexterous robotic manipulation, the pressure vessel was opened, and the hydrates were exposed on the seafloor and positioned so that good images could be recorded. The corral holds about the same amount of CO2 as an individual U.S. citizen puts into the ocean every day via the atmosphere-ocean gas-exchange process. The result was almost precisely a factor of 2 slower than it was at 1,000 meters—as predicted by thermodynamic-equilibrium and saturated boundary-layer theory. Ocean carbon sequestration would only make sense if it diminishes the overall adverse consequences of releasing CO2 into the environment. Climatic Change 1: 59–68. Cesare Marchetti (1977) made the first suggestion of direct carbon sequestration in the ocean about 25 years ago. O ne of the most important threats facing coral reefs on a global scale is a big one: climate change. The combined effects of heat and lower pH are causing serious concerns for coral reef systems (Table 1). Every release required about an hour of intense concentration, as well as hand-eye coordination. They are not. At a depth of about 300 meters, the ratio of CO2 solubility to nitrogen solubility changes significantly, with strongly preferential dissolution of CO2. Critics of this approach—and I was a bit skeptical earlier—suggested that the dissolution might not be quite that easy. Federal Energy Research and Development Agenda for the Challenges of the Twenty-First Century. Most (although certainly not all) coral reefs are in waters with low nutrient concentrations. Orr, Jr. 1999. CO2 can indeed form a hydrate, and we now have extensive experience of working with this property (Brewer et al., 1999). FIGURE 1 Schematic representation of the concept of ocean fertilization. Surface ocean CO2 disposal, that is uptake from the atmosphere by gas exchange with surface ocean waters, is now about 25 million tons of CO2 per day. Over time, massive accumulations of these skeletons made thick, carbon-rich deposits we call coral reefs. A very large fraction of the emissions from the early part of the twentieth century are now in deep waters, well along on the exchange path between the upper ocean and the deep ocean; the oceanic fossil-fuel signal has reached a depth of >1,000 meters. The upper mixed layer equilibrates with the atmosphere roughly on a time scale of a year or so. Storage and transport of excess CO2 in the oceans: the JGOFS/WOCE global CO2 survey. Scientists agree that climate change is real, and this spells real trouble for the world’s coral reefs. It will be hard to meet even these goals. Others have proposed geochemical techniques, such as accelerating silicate or carbonate weathering. Flow in the ocean is primarily along isopycnal (constant density) surfaces, and a key diagnostic tool is where a particular density layer is ventilated, or exposed, to the atmosphere. About 20% of atmospheric carbon dioxide is absorbed by ocean waters. We requested that the pilots fly to the release point, release a small quantity of liquid CO2, and follow this during upward transit over hundreds of meters, while the ROV takes images of the droplets with a precision of a tenth of a millimeter. These specimens were squeezed at high pressure at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory into dense solid units about the size of 35-millimeter film cassettes, placed in a specially designed pressure vessel under about 15.5 MPa methane pressure, and packed in ice. A healthy coral reef with both hard corals and softer-bodied relatives at Chinchorro Reef in the Mexican Caribbean Sea.A new study, published … There will be knock-on effects to ecosystems associated with reefs, and to other pelagic and benthic ecosystems. Direct experiments on the ocean disposal of fossil fuel CO2. Nature. So maybe it's a good idea; maybe a terrible idea. Many aspects of this problem have yet to be investigated. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. Instead of dwelling on policy issues, I will focus on the numbers, on the technology, and on the present level of scientific understanding. The North Pacific Ocean has the densest seawater exposed at northern latitudes. They suggest many possibilities for safe and effective oceanic disposal of CO2. Green Sea Ventures estimates that the cost of iron fertilization would be $7 to $7.50 per ton. Houghton et al. There are two reasons for leakage: (1) carbon placed in the deep ocean eventually mixes back up to the surface; and (2) along with the organic carbon, we sent nutrients down into the deep ocean, thus increasing the deep-ocean nutrient content at the expense of the surface ocean. This was excruciatingly difficult—painstaking, classical, hard work. PCAST (President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology). Rehder, G., S. Kirby, W.B. Burlington, Mass. Durham, L. Stern, E.T. Our Japanese colleagues conducted a similar experiment earlier in the laboratory and described the hydrate-film rebuilding process (Aya et al., 1997). Fossil fuel CO2 is now a major ion of seawater. Carbon sequestration, the long-term storage of carbon in plants, soils, geologic formations, and the ocean. There is also some disagreement, although I think I know the answer, for how we should account for the sort of out-gas seen in de-gasing situations. Climate Change: The IPPC Scientific Assessment , edited by J.T. What is the residence time of carbon in the ocean? MyNAP members SAVE 10% off online. Peltzer, J. Pinkston, and P.G. So there's a company called Cholera. But because it would be a temporary sequestration, we must also consider that it might be necessary to multiply the cost by approximately a factor of three to get the net present value. Using estimated rates of coral reef carbonate production, we compute that coral reefs release 0.02 to 0.08 Gt C as CO2 annually. Deep ocean waters are approximately 500-fold undersaturated with respect to dissolved CO2. The nucleation and growth rates can be capricious, but liquid CO2 undergoes a transformation to the solid hydrate form on the seafloor at a depth of 3,600 meters (Brewer et al., 2002). Within a few hours, it was clear that both the methane and the carbon dioxide hydrates were dissolving. The goal of fertilization is to remove carbon from the surface ocean, fix the CO2 as organic carbon, and then sink it into the deep ocean mostly by gravitational sinking of the total particles. In practice we already have an ocean fossil fuel CO2 disposal program of massive proportions. If we were to go down to a depth of 3,000 meters, we predicted that we would get a reduction in dissolution rate by about a factor of 2, based on the changing solubility (or ease of formation) of the hydrate. Ocean circulation then transports these CO2-modified surface waters to water mass conversion regions and subduction zones. Clearly the deep ocean thermodynamic conditions of temperature and pressure favor hydrate formation, but it is also essential that chemical saturation occur. The magnitude of this problem is enormous, and there is no magic bullet to solve it. However, when the organic carbon gets into the deep ocean, it is oxidized back to CO2, which can get mixed back up to the surface ocean and then can escape back into the atmosphere. One advantage might be that it would give us time to invent new, carbon-emission-free energy technologies. This would aid enormously in sinking CO2 to the ocean floor and, it was presumed, greatly extend its time there. Source: Hanish, 1998. experiments, and we were fortunate to have access to modern, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) to attempt this. It was clearly time to carry out real, TABLE 1 The Evolving Chemistry of Surface Seawater under “Business as Usual”. A number of simulations have been done using general circulation models and schematic ocean models. We can perform much the same sort of calculation for a range of climate sensitivities and a range of acceptable levels of warming. We have already lowered surface ocean pH by about 0.1 pH units, and, if the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Control “Business as Usual” scenario is followed, by the end of this century, we will have lowered carbonate ion concentrations in surface ocean waters by >50 percent (Brewer, 1997). ...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one. It is not clear how much a flux of CO2 from the atmosphere would compensate for this sinking flux or how deep the CO2 would sink in different environments before it is oxidized. Some obvious questions arise at once. 1997. Geophysical Research Letters 27: 225–228. Domino effects will follow, affecting many other marine ecosystems. Many visitors come specifically to visit the reefs themselves, to swim over shimmering gardens of coral amongst hordes of fish, but many more are unknowing beneficiaries of the reefs as producers of sand, … Of the organic carbon that sinks to the deep ocean, some carbon can mix up from below, and some CO2 can come from the top. It reacts quickly with water to form carbonic acid and then with carbonate ion to add to the pool of dissolved bicarbonate in ocean waters. Although we’re making progress, we are still not sure what fraction will sink to the deep ocean when organic carbon production is increased. Geophysical Research Letters 28: 2637–2640. 1990. The specimens were transported by the ROV Ventana to the ocean floor at 1,028 meters (3.6°C) along with a time-lapse camera to record the results. CO2 released in the ocean at a depth of about 800 meters (4.4°C) will dissolve at a rate of about 3 µmol/cm2/sec. 1997. It is important to understand that ocean fertilization, insofar as it works and is environmentally and politically acceptable, might become part of a portfolio of responses. These small-scale, very careful experiments are revealing the rate of CO2 dissolution in the ocean, its physicochemical properties, and its environmental impact. FIGURE 2 Amount of additional carbon stored in the ocean and amount of additional storage per year (net flux to the ocean) as computed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory for idealized iron fertilization south of 30 degrees using the POP ocean model. If we compared three years, 30 years, and 300 years, we found that previously sequestered carbon was leaking back out over much of the rest of the ocean, and by 300 years, there was significant leakage in the tropics. We use cookies to help provide and enhance our service and tailor content and ads. With coral reefs, it's the opposite. W-7405-Eng-48. Reefs will cease to be large-scale nursery grounds for fish and will cease to have most of their current value to humanity. The ocean transports tracers along surfaces of constant density, controlled largely by temperature. At about 100 years, net additional storage (new storage minus leakage) is about one gigaton per year. We are now beginning to address these questions directly. It was performed under the auspices of DOE by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under contract No. On the basis of these results, we next asked how important the hydrate skin was in controlling the outcome of the experiment. 489–521 in Ocean Circulation and Climate. Thus, a bubble stream would quickly evolve into a pure nitrogen gas phase and a dense CO2 rich aqueous phase, which could be piped to great depth. The Norwegian study showed that, if the location and depth of release were carefully selected, the water masses labeled with this excess dissolved CO2 would be advected to the North Atlantic deep-water formation regions and transported into the abyssal flows. Register for a free account to start saving and receiving special member only perks. (3) CO2 enters the surface ocean from the atmosphere to replace some of the carbon removed from the surface ocean. At high pressure and low temperature, CO2 will react with water to form an ice-like solid (CO2.6H2O), which is denser than seawater. The sequestration options range form ocean disposal, terrestrial disposal in geologic formations, biomass based approaches and carbon trading schemes. : Academic Press. Recognizing that we are already sequestering carbon in the ocean unintentionally is very important, and determining the biological effects of CO2 on organisms in the ocean is one of the most important goals of current research. My work is focused on simulations of iron-based ocean fertilization. Start studying carbon. (6) Once in the surface ocean, the CO2 equilibrates with the atmosphere. A 1998 cover story in Environmental Science and Technology, a journal of the American Chemical Society, raised the question of whether we should actively dispose of CO2 in the oceans (Hanisch, 1998). In addition, the ratio of added. This aquifer covers 70 percent of the Earth’s surface, and the reaction with the alkalinity of surface ocean waters is the primary modifier of the increase of CO2 in the atmosphere. But eventually, the ocean will absorb about 80 percent of the carbon released to the atmosphere. Because CO2 would come from the surface ocean, the pressure of CO2 in the surface ocean box would be decreased, which would lead to a compensating flux of CO2 from the atmosphere into the ocean and draw more CO2 out of the atmosphere. This would ensure sequestration for >250 years before reventilation of the water masses in the Antarctic circumpolar flows. We then set up a number of experimental enclosures containing a variety of marine animals. Every U.S. citizen emits the equivalent of about 120 pounds of CO2 a day, and about a third of that goes rather quickly into the ocean. Aya, I., K. Yamane, and H. Nariai. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. Source: IPPC, 1990. CO 2 released in the ocean at a depth of about 800 meters (4.4°C) will dissolve at a rate of about 3 µmol/cm 2 /sec. carbon to the added exports from the surface ocean to the deep ocean decreases with time because previously stored carbon leaks back into the atmosphere. If we had done the experiment in the warmer deep waters of the Mediterranean, would the results have been different? 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