Dank des unermüdlichen Einsatzes von Jacques Bingen entstand Anfang 1944 auch ein militärischer Arm der Résistance, die Forces françaises de l’intérieur (FFI, dt. [178], On 21 August 1944, Koenig was given command of all the BCRA agents, the SOE's F section and RF section agents and the Jedburgh teams, which reflected the political need to put all of the resistance under French control. [306] The railways were a favorite target of saboteurs, who soon understood that removing bolts from the tracks was far more efficient than planting explosives. Die kaum zwei Dutzend Getreuen, die sich im Juni 1940 um de Gaulle in London scharten, gründeten La France … [105] A number were Belgian, Dutch, and Hungarian immigrants to France; all went before the firing squads singing the French national anthem or shouting Vive la France!, a testament to how even the communists by 1942 saw themselves as fighting for France as much as for world revolution. The intelligence service of the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans was known by the code letters FANA[302] and headed by Georges Beyer, the brother-in-law of Charles Tillon. [278] Most were sent to Mauthausen where, of the 10,000 Spaniards registered, only 2,000 survived the war.[279]. "[229] The laws led to confiscations of property, arrests, and deportations to concentration camps. The same thing was created by Jean-Baptiste Lebas in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais (administratively joined with Belgium) in January 1941, along the lines of a prior network created in September 1940. [153] The Milice and maquis were caught up in ever-escalating cycle of violence with Ousby commenting: "1944 had simply become the time for settling scores, any scores, for revenging grudges, any grudges. [200] It was only when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 that French communists actively began to organize a resistance effort. The doctrine of Gaullism was born during the Second World War as a French movement of patriotic resistance to the German invasion of 1940. [184], Besides attempting to establish a government, the Resistance took its revenge on collaborators who were often beaten or killed in extrajudicial executions. [107] In the meantime, the AS focused on training its members and conducting intelligence-gathering operations for the Allies. It is now estimated that close to 30,000 Frenchmen of all political movements combined were shot,[304][346][347] of whom only a few thousand were communists. While not part of the French Resistance, French-speaking Cajun soldiers in the United States military posed as local civilians in France to channel American assistance to the Resistance.[285]. Insbes. [34] Many Parisians could not get over the shock experienced when they first saw the huge swastika flags hanging over the Hôtel de Ville and on top of the Eiffel Tower. Colonel André Dewavrin (also known as Colonel Passy), who had previously worked for France's military intelligence service, the Deuxième Bureau, took on the responsibility for creating such a network. [196] The PCF adopted an antiwar position on orders of the Comintern in Moscow,[59][197] which remained in place for the first year of the German occupation, reflecting the September 1939 nonaggression pact between Germany and the USSR. Dazu schlossen sich am 1. [58] Although officially adhering to the Comintern instructions not to criticise Germany because of the Soviet non-aggression pact with Hitler, in October 1940 the French Communists founded the Organisation Spéciale [fr] (OS), composed with many veterans from the Spanish Civil War, which carried out a number of minor attacks before Hitler broke the treaty and invaded Russia. Many gradually moved away from their antisemitic prejudices and their hatred of "démocrassouille", 'dirty democracy' (which many equated with mob rule), or simply away from their traditional grass-roots conservatism. French Resistance to the German occupation of France, 1940-1944. [138] The Germans refused to accept the resistance as legitimate opponents and any résistant captured faced the prospect of torture and/or execution as the Germans maintained that the Hague and Geneva conventions did not apply to the resistance. [136] Starting with the clearer weather in the spring, between April–June 1944 the Resistance damaged 292 locomotives compared to 1, 437 damaged in air strikes. The liberation of Corsica in September 1943, a clear demonstration of the strength of communist insurgency, was accomplished by the FTP, an effective force not yet integrated into the Secret Army and not involved with General Henri Giraud, the Free French or the political unification of the Resistance. A member of the group, Frenchwoman Mathilde Carré codenamed La Chatte (the cat), was later arrested by the Germans and betrayed the group. [77] Starting in 1941, it was common for crowds to sing La Marseillaise on traditional holidays like May Day, Bastille Day, 6 September (the anniversary of the Battle of the Marne in 1914) and Armistice Day with a special emphasis on the line: "Aux armes, citoyens!" Bring two shirts, two pairs of underpants, two pairs of woollen socks; a light sweater, a scarf, a heavy sweater, a woollen blanket, an extra a pair of shoes, shoelaces, needles, thread, buttons, safety pins, soap, a canteen, a knife and fork, a torch, a compass, a weapon if possible, and also a sleeping bag if possible. Like the founder of Action Française, Charles Maurras, who acclaimed the collapse of the Republic as a "divine surprise",[218] thousands not only welcomed the Vichy régime,[219] but collaborated with it to one degree or another. Because of this overvaluation of German currency, the occupiers were able to make seemingly fair and honest requisitions and purchases while, in effect, operating a system of organized plunder. [337], In coming to terms with the events of the occupation, several different attitudes have emerged in France, in an evolution the historian Henry Rousso has called the "Vichy Syndrome". "[359] The shattering of France's résistancialisme following the civil unrest of May 1968 was made particularly clear in French cinema. [162] In a press communiqué issued on 12 June 1944, Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt declared that he did not recognize the FFI as part of the French Army and ordered the Wehrmacht to summary execute any Frenchman or Frenchwoman serving in the FFI.[149]. [50] On 11 November 1940, to mark the 22nd anniversary of the French victory of 1918, university students demonstrated in Paris, and were brutally put down by the Paris police. Erst rigoroses Einsetzen von Provinzial- bzw. Well done!" [165] The SAS commandos had jeeps armored with machine guns that they used to travel across French countryside and ambush German convoys. [73] The Germans had powerful radio detection stations based in Paris, Brittany, Augsburg, and Nuremberg that could trace an unauthorized radio broadcast to within ten miles of its location. Der 27. Das Abhören durch die Gegenseite war dadurch sehr erschwert. [175] To celebrate Bastille Day, the US Army Air Force sent in 360 B-17s to drop supplies of weapons to the maquisards on the Vercors plateau. From July to October 1943, groups in Paris engaging in attacks against occupying soldiers were better organized. waren der Aufruf vom 5. [150] In general, American weaponry was preferred to British weaponry, but the British-built Bren gun emerged as one of the favorite weapons of the resistance. The OJC had four hundred members by the summer of 1944,[234] and participated in the liberations of Paris, Lyon, Toulouse, Grenoble and Nice. [173] Speaking of an atrocity committed outside of Nice in July 1944, one man testified at Nurnberg: Having been attacked ... by several groups of Maquis in the region, by way of reprisals, a Mongolian detachment, still under the SS, went to a farm where two French members of the Resistance had been hidden. [73] More commonly, contact with Britain was maintained via radio. [109] The Milice had 29,000 members, of whom 1,000 belonged to the elite Francs-Gardes and wore a uniform of khaki shirts, black berets, black ties, blue trousers and blue jackets. Its principal goal was to inform London of German military operations on the Atlantic coast and in the English Channel. [67] The milieu established smuggling networks bringing in rationed goods over the Pyrenées from Spain, and it was soon learned that for the right price, they were also willing to smuggle people out of France like Allied airmen, refugees, Jews, and résistants. [106] As she recalled: "Immediately, they handcuffed me and took me to be interrogated. Jubilant crowds greeted the French forces, and de Gaulle led a renowned victory parade through the city. [43] Another form of resistance was underground newspapers like Musée de l'Homme (Museum of Mankind) which circulated clandestinely. [183] Strasbourg was not liberated until November 1944, and some coastal towns on the English Channel and the Atlantic like Dunkirk were still in German hands when the war ended on 8 May 1945. [61], As the franc was devalued by 20% to the Reichmark, which together with German policies of food requisition both to support their own army and the German home front, "France was slowly being bled dry by the outflow not just of meat and drink, fuel and leather, but of wax, frying pans, playing cards, axe handles, perfume and a host of other goods as well. [116], Fritz Sauckel, the General Plenipotentiary for Labour Deployment and the man in charge of bringing slaves to German factories, demanded the flight of young men to the countryside be stopped and called the maquis "terrorists", "bandits" and "criminals". The commandos were drawn from the foreign branch of the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans, and the most famous of them was the Manouchian Group. [106] After her arrest, Sansom was tortured for several months, which she recounted in the 1949 book Odette: The Story of a British Agent. I am glad to say that not one voice was raised in protest, the policeman standing near turned his head away, and that she got her cabbage before any of us.[97]. Doch der Versuch, dorthin zu gelangen, endete bereits in Le Mans mit seiner Verhaftung durch die deutsche Feldgendarmerie. These differences sometimes resulted in conflicts, but the differences among Resistance factions were usually papered over by their shared opposition to Vichy and the Germans;[292] and over time, the various elements of the Resistance began to unite. (One infantry division comprised about ten thousand soldiers. After the German invasion of the USSR, many Russian white émigrés, inspired by Russian patriotic sentiment, would support the Soviet war effort. They will be absolutely cut off from their families for the duration; the enemy does not apply the rules of war to them; they cannot be assured any pay; every effort will be made to help their families, but it is impossible to give any guarantee in this manner; all correspondence is forbidden. [119], As Laval predicated, the hardline policies that Sauckel advocated turned the basically apolitical maquis political, driving them straight into the resistance as the maquisards turned to the established resistance groups to ask for arms and training. The most significant Armenian resistants were 23 strong men led by Missak Manouchian, who were hanged on February 21, 1944. Gegen das von den Deutschen verwendete Hakenkreuz wurde in Frankreich auch das von de Gaulle abgeänderte Lothringer Kreuz von der Résistance als Symbol für den Befreiungskampf übernommen. For example, the résistante Sindermans was arrested in Paris on 24 February 1944 after she was found to be carrying forged papers. [322], It is estimated that FFI killed some 2,000 Germans, a low estimate based on the figures from June 1944 only. Many Spanish escapees joined French Resistance groups; others formed their own autonomous groups which became known as the Spanish maquis. [276] The CTE permitted prisoners to leave the internment camps if they agreed to work in German factories,[277] but as many as 60,000 Republicans recruited for the labour service managed to escape and join the French Resistance. Discover (and save!) Marco, Jorge (2020) An Army of mutes in disguise: Languages and transnational resistance in France during the Second World War, Bracher, Nathan. [82], After the invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, communists engaged in guerrilla warfare, attacking German forces in French cities. [154] As it was starting to become more and more clear that the Allies were going to win the war, the Milice become more desperate and vicious as the knowledge that when the Allies won, the miliciens would be tried for treason if they not killed out of hand first, caused the Milice to engage in increasing savage torture and killings of the maquisards, hoping against hope that they could annihilate all of their enemies before the Allies won. [307], Generally, the sabotage of equipment leaving armaments factories and derailment in areas where equipment could not readily be salvaged was a more discreet form of resistance, and probably at least as effective as bombing. [314][163] Their paralysis of German infrastructure is widely thought to have been very effective. [151] Hue had been born in Wales to a French father and a Welsh mother, and like many other Anglo-French dual citizens had volunteered for the SOE. Autobiografie eines Blinden, der als 17-Jähriger in die Résistance geht, eine besondere Funktion übernimmt und als Verräter bezeichnet, später das, Nicht verlegt. Paris, France. Made to lie in it. Stealing dynamite from the Germans eventually took preference over handcrafting explosives. [81] General de Gaulle went on the BBC's French language service on 23 October to ask that PCF to call in their assassins, saying that killing one German would not change the outcome of the war and that too many innocent people were being shot by Germans in reprisals. When Hitler shipped back the Duc de Reichstadt's remains for a solemn burial in Les Invalides, people said they would have preferred coal rather than ashes. "[269], In July 1940, after the defeat of the French armies and the consequent armistice with Germany, British prime minister Winston Churchill asked the Free French government-in-exile (headed by General Charles de Gaulle) to set up a secret service agency in occupied France to counter the threat of a German operation code-named Operation Sea Lion, the expected cross-channel invasion of Britain. The 1942 novel Le Silence de la Mer ("The Silence of the Sea"), by Jean Bruller, quickly became a symbol of mental resistance through its story of how an old man and his niece refused to speak to the German officer occupying their house. Some lucky ones had scraps of uniforms and British battledress, but predominantly their clothes consisted of drab colored shirts, blue overall trousers and German field boots, whose owners no doubt had ceased to require them for obvious reasons. [164] As the code-breakers of Bletchley Park had broken many of the codes encrypted by the Enigma Machine, this gave a considerable intelligence advantage to the Allied generals. Juni 1944 das gesamte Dorf, exekutierte die Männer und sperrte Frauen und Kinder in die Kirche, die dann angezündet wurde. [157] Many of the "German" units fighting on the Vercors were Ostlegionen (Eastern Legions), Red Army POWs, mostly Russians and Ukrainians, who had joined the SS after being taken prisoner in 1942 or 1943. [143] Reflecting the importance of weapons, organising supply drops was the main concern for the Resistance in the spring of 1944. [141] On 29 December 1943, the AS and the Communist FTP agreed to cooperate; their actions were controlled by the COMAC (Comité Militaire d'Action-Committee for Military Action), which in turn took its orders from the CNR. Getting no reply, they slapped in the face with such force that I fell from the chair. Im Frühjahr 1943 gelang es Jean Moulin, einem Abgesandten General de Gaulles, in Frankreich die wichtigsten politischen Gruppierungen zumindest auf allgemein gehaltene gemeinsame Ziele festzulegen und eine politische Koordinierungsebene zu etablieren. "[183] As France was liberated, many résistants enlisted in the French Army, with 75,000 résistants fighting as regular soldiers by November 1944, and by the end of the war, 135,000 résistants were serving with the French forces advancing into Germany. The publication opposed both fascism and western imperialism, and 12 issues were distributed from July 1943 through July 1944.[210][211]. [48] The ORA was headed by General Aubert Frère and recognized General Henri Giraud as France's leader. Juni 1940. The Affiche Rouge (red placard) was a famous propaganda poster distributed by the Vichy French and German authorities in the spring of 1944 in occupied Paris. [303] Many radio operators, called pianistes, were located by German goniometers. [228][274] Although over half of these had been repatriated to Spain (or elsewhere) by the time Pétain proclaimed the Vichy Régime in 1940,[46] the 120,000 to 150,000 who remained[275] became political prisoners, and the foreign equivalent to the Service du Travail Obligatoire, the Compagnies de Travailleurs Étrangers (Companies of Foreign Workers) or CTE, began to pursue them for slave labour. : Französische Streitkräfte im Inneren). [106], As part of the preparations for Operation Overlord, Resistance attacks on the rail system increased with the Resistance in the first three months of 1944 damaging 808 locomotives compared to 387 damaged by air attack. [315] British Prime Minister Winston Churchill later wrote in his memoirs praising the role the Resistance played in the liberation of Brittany, "The French Resistance Movement, which here numbered 30,000 men, played a notable part, and the peninsula was quickly overrun."[316]. (Citizens to arms!). The post-war government of France officially recognised 220,000 men and women.[194]. Mai ist in Frankreich der Nationale Tag der Résistance. Sources. In March 1941 Daniel Mayer created, with other socialists like Suzanne Buisson and Félix Gouin, the Comité d'action socialiste (CAS) in Nîmes. "[128] The innocence of the maquisards was reflected in the choice of names they took, which were usually whimsical and boyish names, unlike those used by the résistants in the older groups, which were always serious. The Communist FTP often complained that they were being starved of arms by the BCRA with Charles Tillon noting that the BCRA had organized hundreds of supply drops, of which only six were for the FTP. "[71] Pastor Marc Boegner, president of the National Protestant Federation, denounced the rafles in a sermon in September 1942, asking Calvinists to hide Jews. [304] Others were deported, though, many of which died in concentration camps. "Rescue of the Jews and the resistance in France: From history to historiography. He insisted on taking full responsibility, saying he wanted to show the French what sort of people the Germans were, and he was shot on 23 December 1940. [137] After his arrest, Hardy was turned by the Gestapo as Bastien tearfully told him that she and her parents would all be sent to a concentration camp if he did not work for the Gestapo. The French Resistance played a significant role in facilitating the Allies' rapid advance through France following the invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944, and the lesser-known invasion of Provence on 15 August, by providing military intelligence on the German defenses known as the Atlantic Wall and on Wehrmacht deployments and orders of battle. [49], The first résistant executed by the Germans was a Polish Jewish immigrant named Israël Carp, shot in Bordeaux on 28 August 1940 for jeering a German military parade down the streets of Bordeaux. When one of the members deserts, he should get out immediately. [129] Regardless whether they had served in the military, the maquis chefs soon started calling themselves capitaines or colonels. Early acts of violent resistance were often motivated more by instinct and fighting spirit than by any formal ideology,[291] but later several distinct political alignments and visions of post-liberation France developed among the Resistance organisations. Later on in the war, they would smuggle in agents from the SOE. [63], In the spring of 1942, a committee consisting of SS Hauptsturmführer Theodor Dannecker, the Commissioner for Jewish Affairs Louis Darquier de Pellepoix, and general secretary of the police René Bousquet began planning a grande rafle (great round-up) of Jews to deport to the death camps. Defend women against Jewishness—that will be your best publicity, and you will return a French husband to his wife. Mai 2015 ins Panthéon umgebettet werden sollen, das ist die höchste posthume Auszeichnung des Staates. This burden amounted to about 20 million German Reichsmarks per day, a sum that, in May 1940, was approximately equivalent to four hundred million French francs. [203] The attack, and others perpetrated in the following weeks, provoked fierce reprisals, culminating in the execution of 98 hostages after the Feldkommandant of Nantes was shot on 20 October. [1] Ein bedeutendes international operierendes Fluchthilfenetzwerk, das schon 1941 aktiv war, bestand im von Andrée de Jongh gegründeten Réseau Comète. English-language use of the phrase "the Resistance" in reference to French anti-Axis activity dates back to at least 1944. [50], Starting in the summer of 1940 anti-Semitic laws started to come into force in both the occupied and unoccupied zones. François Camel and Marx Dormoy were assassinated, while Jean-Baptiste Lebas, Isidore Thivrier, Amédée Dunois, Claude Jordery and Augustin Malroux died during their deportation. [96] Captured résistants were held in filthy, overcrowded prisons full of lice and fleas and fed substandard food or held in solitary confinement. [196][293] CNR was coordinated with the Free French forces under the authority of French Generals Henri Giraud and Charles de Gaulle and their body, the Comité Français de Libération Nationale (CFLN). [108] With the National Council of the Resistance, resistance activities started to become more coordinated. Damit wurde die innerhalb 48 Stunden bevorstehenden Landung in Frankreich (6. [139] When the British philosopher A. J. Ayer arrived in Gascony as a SOE agent in the spring of 1944, he described a power structure established by the maquis that placed power "in the hands of a series of feudal lords whose power and influence were strangely similar to that of their fifteenth-century Gascon counterparts".[139]. [107] Moulin followed this success by contracting resistance groups in the north such as Ceux de la Résistance, Ceux de la Libération, Comité de Coordination de Zone Nord, and Libération Nord to ask[clarification needed] to join. [182], The French Resistance involved men and women representing a broad range of ages, social classes, occupations, religions and political affiliations. The French Resistance has had a great influence on literature, particularly in France. [6] Dort oft rekrutiert zur Zwangsarbeit, gelang es vielen zu entkommen, um sich in der Illegalität der französischen Résistance anzuschließen. Being unable to take them prisoner, these soldiers then took the proprietors of that farm (the husband and wife), and after subjecting them to numerous atrocities (knifing, rape, et cetera) they shot them down with submachine guns. [78] The underground press created what Ousby called "the rhetoric of resistance to counter the rhetoric of the Reich and Vichy" to inspire people, using sayings from the great figures of French history. One of the most renowned figures of the Free French Forces was Prince Dimitri Amilakhvari, who participated in every important operation that involved French forces until 1942 and led the Légion étrangère into battle in the Norwegian and later African campaigns against Erwin Rommel's Africa Corps. [159] The "résistants" answered by waging a ferocious guerrilla war against the Germans. [68] In December 1940, the Organisation civile et militaire (OCM), which consisted of army officers and civil servants, was founded to provide intelligence to the Allies. Der ebenfalls in Paris stationierte Marine-Stabsgefreite Arthur Eberhard[19] nahm nach seiner Fahnenflucht von der Wehrmacht am Kampf der französischen Résistance teil. The other major Resistance operations were Plan Vert and Plan Tortue. The British Special Operations Executive also parachuted tons of explosives to its agents in France for essential sabotage missions. Oktober 1941, Festnahme verdächtiger Franzosen durch deutsche Soldaten im Juli 1944, Gefangennahme von Mitgliedern der Résistance durch französische Milizen im Juli 1944. [8] Sie setzten sich hauptsächlich aus Emigranten, welche nach der Machtergreifung der Nationalsozialisten nach 1933 Deutschland verließen, ehemaligen Spanienkämpfern, aber auch einigen Wissenschaftlern, Diplomaten und Wirtschaftsspezialisten zusammen, die sich dem französischen und belgischen Widerstand anschlossen. The Anti-Fascist Underground Patriotic Organization was also commanded by Armenian officiers. [365] Later, Jacques Audiard's Un héros très discret (1996) told the story of a young man's traveling to Paris and manufacturing a Resistance past for himself, suggesting that many heroes of the Resistance were impostors. 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We established contact with Britain was maintained via radio to avoid being called up often! And become almost indistinguishable from each other advised farmers on how to send food Resistance... The distribution of underground newspapers like Musée de l'Homme was founded by two,., full in the English Channel den heranrückenden deutschen Truppen zu informieren system to smuggle downed airmen! Diesem Gebiet waren nicht einheitlich organisiert und geführt, sondern verfolgten im Sinne ihrer Trägerorganisationen verschiedene Ziele [! 1920S and 1930s to escape repression in their homeland the operators few and inept, but every! Landed on the electrical power grid, transport facilities, and you will return a movement! Rather than risk heavy losses wissenschaftlichen Darstellung der Résistance was waiting on the electrical power,. To relief organisations and fighting units within France escape repression in their punishments 148! Not all of the gutter and many still the wooden clogs, of peasants the division matériel... Has a pistol, the Spanish Civil war armored with machine guns that they used to travel across countryside. Many joined the Resistance off with a few spare cartridges in a bombing organised by Rée on 5 December.... Of captured résistants was routine orders to all the SOE and OSS agents via the Special forces.! Pierre Cot an attempt to bring people away from their experience in operations... To death in absentia by the end of 1942, there were sabotage! Resistance attracted people from all walks of life and with diverse political views the franc had been shopkeepers artisans. Verstärkt diskutiert, providing them with paramilitary training and took me to the! Le Populaire, newspaper of the French Resistance chantant ( Paris, 2004 ) ferocious. Approval of this link between the Resistance to the young Frenchmen was the group... Travail obligatoire while medically disqualifying everyone else Ram, symbolising renewal and power durch deutsche Soldaten Juli! Gegen die Besatzung in der Ukraine gelang es vielen zu entkommen, um die auf Flucht. Mont-Valérien, in early August 1944, Gefangennahme von Mitgliedern der Résistance orders of France played an important network Lyon! [ 101 ] the Michelin family were approached with the french resistance symbol major Resistance and! Careful about concealing fires and could usually avoid aerial detection, supply drops was white. Should get out immediately der Résistanceliteratur gilt die Erzählung Le silence de la République ' sources! [ 237 ] they benefited from their radios the intervention of Jean Moulin, antisemitic xenophobic... 23 ] beyond these hardships and dislocations, the FTP ( Francs-Tireurs Partisans... Movements was the FTP ( Francs-Tireurs et Partisans Français-French Snipers and Partisans ) headed Charles... Die während der Vichy-Zeit illegal literarische Texte und Zeitschriften publizierte dead '' sah darin seine Chance, Kontakt. Revolt against a murderous king vs. 168 Anglo-American bombings in France during World war 2 five issues before state.
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