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In the following sections, we would see how equilibrium is arrived at in the important models of non-collusive oligopoly-Cournot model of duopoly, Bertrand model, Stackelberg model, Edgeworth, Chamberlin and the Kinked Demand curve analysis of Sweezy. There are different models for the determination of output, assuming the absence of collusion. It describes interactions among firms (sellers) that set prices and their customers (buyers) that choose quantities at the prices set. In the following sections, we would see how equilibrium is arrived at in the important models of non-collusive oligopoly—Cournot model of duopoly, Bertrand model, Stackelberg model, Edgeworth, Chamberlin and the Kinked Demand curve analysis of Sweezy. Chamberlin seems to have assumed that marginal costs of the different firms are identical. One of the earliest criticisms of Cournot’s model has been that it fails to allow for the incentive to a firm to lower its price and enlarge its sales. It can be seen that because each firm calculates its marginal revenue on the basis of the current output of its rival, its rival’s current output determines its output decision. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on UKEssays.com then please: Our academic writing and marking services can help you! There is a possibility where Firm 1 charges p2 > p1 = c and earns zero profit since it produces where price equals AC. Since Firm 2’s capacity is constrained, it can only sell the amount qc­­. This way, although it can’t fulfil the market demand, it still gets higher demand than its rival, thus, earns higher profit compared to setting price equal MC. This would better explain the occasional price wars that flare up in markets with a few sellers. Considering this, Bertrand proposed an alternative to Cournot.Considering Bertrand’s model from a game theory perspective, it can be analysed as a … Actually as Rothschild says, “Price rigidity is an essential aspect of ‘normal’ oligopostic strategy”. An expansion in its sales is attractive to the duopolist so long as price exceeds marginal cost, since every extra unit sold add to its operating profits. This is a two-stage game which firms simultaneously choose a capacity in first stage, then choose prices in second stage. Each firm is a profit maximizer, choosing a level of output which will maximize its profit. Thus it is not a theory of price determination as was thought when it was first proposed. On these measures, the Bertrand model is silent. Hence the industry is in equilibrium at E. In Cournot Equilibrium, the industry’s output is less than that under perfect competition. Hence product heterogeneity will reduce the gains from price-cutting. It is these measures, “aggressive or defensive which are peculiar to oligopoly.”. Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UKEssays.com. So firms would try to deviate to gain more consumers. A firm has also the option of turning a Nelson’s eye to his rival’s reactions and behaving blindly as a Cournot firm would. Prohibited Content 3. These and other empirical findings have raised doubts over the general validity of the kinked demand curve model. Image Guidelines 4. Why should the demand curve appear kinked? This gives them the incentive to expand sales by further price cutting. Stackelberg’s Duopoly 5. Thus, pure monopoly and perfect competition are revealed to be limiting forms of the generalized Cournot oligopoly. So Firm 1 is better off deviating and charging p1 ­below p2. It consequently knows that the market price will be affected by its sales decisions as well as the sales of its rivals. 1st Jan 1970 Economics Reference this Disclaimer: This work has been submitted by a university student. If both firms choose to be leaders, the model breaks down. Noncooperative oligopoly is a market where a small number of firms act inde-pendently but are aware of each other’sactions. On this assumption, it is a simple matter to calculate the monopoly price in the industry as shown in Fig. With a homogenous product, the low priced firm captures the entire market. The ‘tolerable’ limits are indicated by the gap in the firm’s marginal revenue curve at the current level of sales in Fig. Hence, the Bertrand equilibrium is not hold in this case. If you need assistance with writing your essay, our professional essay writing service is here to help! The competitive output will be equal to the demand at zero price. Our academic experts are ready and waiting to assist with any writing project you may have. In contrast, a price hike by the oligopolist will find no firms following suit, since they do not feel that a price increase by their rival can threaten their market share. Free resources to assist you with your university studies! On the contrary, when the total capacity is large compared to market demand, if firms try to set price equals to MC and share half of the market demand, their capacities will not be fully consumed. The general Cournot model yields the industry results of other structures as special cases. Further, price rigidity can be expected to be less when oligopolists collude in price formation so that the prices tend to move in phase (upward or downwards). The economic arrangement is the primary means which will help in getting a level playing field. Oligopoly Models An oligopoly is a market structure characterized by significant interdependence. But its marginal revenue depends not only on its own output but also on its rival’s output, and how its rival changes its output in reaction to the firm’s decisions. Assume that firms endogenously choose capacities before setting price. If Firm 1 set p1 below MC, then Firm 2’s best-response is to do nothing to prevent losses. Cournot’s model of oligopoly is one of the oldest theories of the behaviour of the individual firm and relates to non-collusive oligopoly. Plagiarism Prevention 5. To do this we would make use of the concept of reaction functions (RF). [4] and [5] become –, The industry’s output and price in Cournot equilibrium are –. In Bertrand model, firms set different prices for the same product so the firm that has the lowest price can sell to the whole market. In other words, the single oligopolist can take into account both the direct as well as the indirect effects of his decisions. Hence, MR = 0 = a – 2bq. This renews the entire process. The limitations of Cournot’s model provided a launching pad to many later models of duopoly. This takes the market towards perfect competition. Hence each oligopolist must also be aware of the marginal costs of other firms. The equilibrium set includes the Cournot, Stackelberg, and Allaz–Vila outcomes. If p2 = p1, consumer’s preference is indifferent between two firms. Cournot assumes that this conjectural variation (∂qj/∂qj) is zero. Only if the marginal costs increase or fall sufficiently to spill out of this gap, will the firm change its price and output. Bertrand’s Duopoly Model 3. Adam Smith had once maintained that people in the same line of business attempt to collude whenever they get together. A price decrease however fails to draw demand away from the rivals because all of them follow suit. The equilibrium solution is derived from a simultaneous solution of the reaction curves. His duopoly model consists of two firms marketing a homogenous good. Recap • Oligopoly Market Structure – Different characteristics and example • Measures of Oligopoly • Models of Oligopoly (Non collusive and collusive models) • Collusion and Cartel • Non – Collusive Models • Cournot Model • Demand in a Cournot Duopoly • Response Function • Cournot Equilibrium 4/7/17 MBA ZC416, Managerial Economics, Monika Gupta 2 At the competitive price, the market demand equals the combined supply of the two firms, and their marginal costs equal the market price. Augustin Cournot’s Model Oligopoly was made by the French economist Augustin Cournot in 1839. is model rests upon the following main assumptions: 1. In this section we will first present three models of duopoly, which is the limiting case of oligopoly. There are Two firms in the market, A and B 2. Cournot uses the example of mineral spring water, whose production costs nothing. On the basis of its rival’s current output, from the market demand curve, it estimates its own marginal revenue function to be –, At the profit maximising output of each Cournot firm, marginal revenue equals marginal costs. Hence there appears a gap in the marginal revenue curve at the going level of sales as shown in the Fig. (iv) At n, the Cournot oligopoly output is n/(n+1) times the competitive output and the oligopoly price is higher than the competitive price. This means that the supply of both firms will be equal (q1 = q2), Since, Ci = 0 and q1 = q2, the reaction curves eqns. This model involves joint-profit sharing with zero enforcement costs by rivals. Sweezy model, Cournot model, Stackelberg model or Bertrand model. no equilibrium in pure strategies since prices may fluctuate or firms may choose to use mixed strategies. Content Filtration 6. Since marginal cost is zero in perfect competition, indefinitely large quantities of spring water will be supplied at any positive price, driving the price down to zero. This is called the Bertrand Paradox. Edgeworth suggests a variant wherein neither firm has sufficient capacity to supply the whole market at the competitive price. 3. Up until now, capacity constraints have been considered exogenous. 12.5. Ci = ci qi2                             …[1], where Ci is the total cost of the ith firm, ci = is a parameter and ∂Ci/∂qi = marginal cost = 2ciqi, Each firm is aware of the market demand curve. And it is a model of symmetric oligopoly. Thus, it can be seen that monopoly output is less than, and monopoly price larger than that under Cournot duopoly. COLLUSIVE MODELS CARTELS PRICE LEADERSHIP MARKET SHARE MODEL NON-COLLUSIVE MODELS COURNOT-NASH STACKELBERG EDGEWORTH BERTRAND OLIGOPOLY MODELS COLLUSIVE MODELS CARTELS • In which two or more than two firms are making an agreement on determination of price and output. Correspondingly, the Cournot price is higher than in perfect competition. From experience, each seller becomes aware that his rival reacts to his sales plan. Disclaimer: This work has been submitted by a university student. They express the dependence of each firm’s profit maximising output on the current sales of its rival. Hence sales will be less than desired. When the number of sellers is very small, they may consider all the indirect effects of their output decisions, in which case the Chamberlin solution results. Terms of Service Privacy Policy Contact Us, The Cournot Model of Oligopoly (With Criticisms) | Microeconomics, How to Determine Price and Output under Oligopoly? When Firm 1 charge p1 = p2 = p >c, demand is divided equally between two firms, both firms earn profit π1 = π2 = (p-c)*1/2Q(p). Report a Violation 11. There will be consumers who are turned away by Firm 2. So it will do better by deviating. Since products are heterogenous, every oligopolist faces a downward sloping demand curve for his product. Sweezy’s model explains the rigidity of the going price of product. Source: http://users.ox.ac.uk/~scat3104/oligopolynotes.doc, Given p1, Firm 2 will choose p2 slightly below p1 but above MC, therefore, Firm 2’s best-response function lies slightly below the 45° line, where price equals MC. 12.3. Stonier and Hague opine that the kinked demand curve is likely to be found mainly where trade is relatively depressed. This continuum implies that the difference between the four market structures is a difference of degree and not of kind. This is shown by the second term on the right hand side in the following –. As per Cournot’s model, each duopolist thinks that regardless of his actions and the effect upon the market of the product the other will go on producing the same commodity. It does not explain how this price is arrived at. Study for free with our range of university lectures! For instance, at p1 the output at which MCA= MCB = p1, is greater than market demand and sales. 1.1. The aforesaid examples of oligopoly highlight the different aspects. Thus price wars resume, returning the two sellers to the competitive price. However, if Firm 1 chooses p1 > p, its residual demand will equal the market demand minus Firm 2’s residual demand, Q – q2, similar to the case above. We know that its profits are maximized where its marginal cost equals its marginal revenue, so that its equilibrium output will be characterized by MRi = MCi. 1st Jan 1970 At less than the desired level of sales, the marginal costs of A or B or both are likely to be less than p1. Hence, what calls for explanation is not the price wars themselves, or their consequences, but how oligopolists try to avoid them or prepare for them. Like the Cournot and Bertrand models, it ignores entry of firms and is thus a closed model. Hence from eqns. Having discussed the classical duopoly models of Cournot and Bertrand, we proceed with the development of the traditional models of non-collusive oligopoly, which apply to market structures with a few firms conscious of their interdependence. Company Registration No: 4964706. Of course, its output decision also depends on its own costs as well as the market demand conditions (represented by a, b, ci). Generally in oligopoly competition, it is assumed that there are a fixed number of firms and no new entry; all firms produce homogenous product in a single period and have constant marginal cost c. In the Cournot model, firms choose the quantities to produce and prices adjusted along to clear the market. And if it sets p1 > p2, then all consumers will by from Firm 2. Bertrand’s model, just like Cournot’s model, assumes naivete on the part of the duopolists. This gap in the marginal revenue absorbs the ‘shocks’ of changes in costs. Apart from that, the size of capacity influences the competitiveness of the industry, the smaller capacity constraints, the higher market power. Therefore, Firm 1 will sell the amount equals market demand minus qc, which means Firm 1’s residual demand curve is the market demand curve shifted left-ward by qc. In this general case, assuming constant average and marginal costs d, we can show the industry’s output Q and price p to be –. Thus none of them can be the Nash Equilibrium. If the capacity and production cost are relatively high, the unique Cournot equilibrium occurs. Abstract. However, the assumptions of Bertrand’s model ignored some important facts in real world market. When p2 = p1, two firms share half of the market demand which is indicated by the dashed line. The other firm too responds in kind and a price war flares up. According to Kreps and Schienkman (1983) and Deneckere and Kovanock (1996), under some conditions, the firms’ capacity choice in Edgeworh’s model leads to equilibrium prices which are similar to those arise in Cournot model. Initial evidence for the kinked demand model seemed to be favourable. Thus, each oligopolist, with his knowledge of the market demand curve, calculates the monopoly price, and maintains it. As shown in Figure 1, Firm 2’s residual demand curve equals to 0 if p2>p1, coincides with the market demand curve when p2 p2 > c then it will sells 0. And suppose that p is the price where market demand is equal to the total capacity, Q = q1+q2, and Firm 2 charges p. If Firm 1 also charges p1= p, its profit will be π1 = q1*p. If it charges p1 < p, then it will still earn the same profit due to the limited capacity. According to the law of supply and demand, a high level of output results in a relatively low price, whereas a lower level of output results in a relatively higher price. We thus see that the competitive output is 3/2 times as large as the output in Cournot’s duopoly. Copyright 10. This is illustrated in Figure 2 below. Behaving as a monopolist in this part of the market, this firm may charge a higher price. Chamberlin finds this unconvincing. Consider a duopoly case where there are two firms in the market. Since the total capacity is small, Firm 1 can do better by not raising p1 above p. So Firm 1’s best-response when Firm 2 charges p2 = p is to charge p1 = p and vice versa. Chamberlin's Oligopoly Model: Chamberlin suggested that a stable equilibrium can be reached in an oligopolistic market if the firms charge monopoly price. Algebraically, the firm’s profit maximising output is given by –. The total quantity supplied by all firms then determines the market price. Privacy Policy 9. This is shown by point E. At E, the sales decision of each firm corresponds to the expectations on which the other bases its calculations. For simplicity here we consider as duopoly situation, as in Cournot’s model. This successful price hike will encourage the other duopolist to follow suit. They are also linear in our specific example, although this is not necessary. Account Disable 12. Bertrand competition is a model of competition used in economics, named after Joseph Louis François Bertrand (1822–1900). Cournot assumes that the duopolist takes his rivals’ sales as constant while making his decisions. Thus, in order to estimate its marginal revenue, the duopolist is forced to conjecture about how his rival is likely to vary its output in response to his own decision. Only a part of the market demand will swing to the low priced firm if the product is heterogenous. Bertrand suggests that it is more plausible to assume that the duopolist takes his rival’s price as constant. Thus, according to Chamberlin, behavioural shifts accompany changes in the number of sellers, separating the three models. Hence he offers an alternative model where behavioural changes separate the Cournot oligopoly from monopoly and perfect competition. Nor was there any evidence to show that price rigidity was more in non-collusive oligopolies when compared with monopolies, or when compared with the same markets in periods of known collusion. However his demand curve appears to be kinked at the going price to the oligopolist. As assumed, products are homogenous and MC is constant, one firm can fill the market demand if its price is slightly below rival’s price. | Microeconomics, Economic Theory: Essay on the Economic Theory | Microeconomics, Keynesianism versus Monetarism: How Changes in Money Supply Affect the Economic Activity, Keynesian Theory of Employment: Introduction, Features, Summary and Criticisms, Keynes Principle of Effective Demand: Meaning, Determinants, Importance and Criticisms, Classical Theory of Employment: Assumptions, Equation Model and Criticisms, Classical Theory of Employment (Say’s Law): Assumptions, Equation & Criticisms. Traditional oligopoly models hold that firms compete in the same strategic variable, output (Cournot) or price (Bertrand). Thus price war continues until the competitive price pc is reached. By inference, the more the product heterogeneity, the lesser is the price rigidity. Finally Stigler could not find any evidence to show that price rigidity increased with the homogeneity of the products. Collusive Oligopoly; Cournot’s Model. A We will see the following: 1) Cournot’sduopoly model; 2) Stackelberg’sduopoly model. But problems might arise in sharing profit by the two sellers. For given p1, if p2 is slightly lower than p1, all consumers will buy from Firm 2 and Firm 1 sells 0 as two firms produce identical products. As a result, it subsequently cut its prices below the level prevailing in the rest of the industry. So up to qc, MC is constant but it becomes infinite at qc. (b) Under the Bertrand model firms make assumptions about their rivals' choice of price / output. Therefore, each company has t… The corresponding price is the monopoly price. List of oligopoly models: 1. It will choose the more profitable role. That is to say, he conjectures about the sign and size of ∂q2/∂q1. Sweezy’s Kinked Demand Model. With very few sellers it becomes possible for an oligopolist to take into account the reactions his decisions evoke in his rivals, and the effects of their reactions on the market price and output. Since in both models, the firm assumes that no countermoves will be made inspite of its experience to the contrary, its behaviour is irrational. Consequently, setting price equals monopoly level is not a Nash Equilibrium. *You can also browse our support articles here >. The initial price p exceeds the marginal cost of firm A and firm B. Cournot competition is an economic model used to describe an industry structure in which companies compete on the amount of output they will produce, which they decide on independently of each other and at the same time. This is illustrated in Fig. The Stackelberg equilibrium price is lower, so output and total surplus are higher; total profits are lower. The knowledge of the indirect effects of his action will convince the oligopolist that it is better to charge a monopoly price and share monopoly profits with other sellers than to chase elusive individualistic profits which disappear under the weight of action and reactions of oligopolistic rivals. The explanation for this is as follows: 1) Sweezy Model: One of the key assumptions of Sweezy model is that firms operating under this model react to price cuts by rival firms while they do not respond to increase in the price by rival firms. 12.4. No plagiarism, guaranteed! 12.5. INTRODUCTION ANDDEFINITIONS Definition 1 (Oligopoly). This is not an example of the work produced by our Essay Writing Service. But at the same time from the examples mentioned above, we can conclude that oligopoly is … ADVERTISEMENTS: A model of oligopoly was first of all put forward by Cournota French economist, in 1838. 1241 words (5 pages) Essay. To overcome this irrationality, Chamberlin suggests an alternative oligopoly model. All work is written to order. If the duopoly firm adopts Bertrand’s conjecture, it thinks that by marginally cutting its price (with other prices given) it can capture the entire market. On the other hand, the Cournot equilibrium industry output is more than under simple monopoly, and the Cournot equilibrium price is lower. Since MC = 0, MR = 0. This is convenient, but not necessary. By analogous reasoning, we can show that the combined profits of duopolists will be positive and smaller than the profits of the monopoly, and larger than under competition. Cournot’s Duopoly Model 2. This is the asymmetry in the rivals’ reactions to the price variations by the firms. 2. Hence, no firm can do better by changing price. 14.3 Noncooperative Oligopoly • Broad set of models that describe the way in which oligopolistic firms behave if they don’t collude. Copyright © 2003 - 2020 - UKEssays is a trading name of All Answers Ltd, a company registered in England and Wales. Registered office: Venture House, Cross Street, Arnold, Nottingham, Nottinghamshire, NG5 7PJ. From simple essay plans, through to full dissertations, you can guarantee we have a service perfectly matched to your needs. Terms of Service 7. The reaction-curves approach is a more powerful method of analysis of oligopolistic markets, because it allows the relaxation of the assumption of identical costs and identical demands. The kink appears because rivals react asymmetrically to a change in the price by the firm, and because the rival’s products are substitutes for the firm’s products. The reluctance to follow price increases revealed by this example may have been due to the glut in the markets during the 30’s. If two firms charge the monopolist price p1, one firm would want to lower its price to slightly below p1. Alternatively, a hybrid model allows some firms to compete in output and other firms to compete in price, also known as the Cournot–Bertrand model. ADVERTISEMENTS: The Cournot Model and the Cournot Solution: The first systematic oligopoly model was published by the French economist Antoine Augustin Cournot (1801-77) in 1838. The eqns. The common characteristic of these models is that they assume a certain pattern of reaction of competitors in each period and despite the fact that the ‘expected’ reaction does not in fact materialise, the firms continue to assume that the initial assumption holds. 12.5. •Some Specific Oligopoly Models : Cournot, Bertrand and Stackelberg • Competition When There are Increasing Returns to Scale • Monopolistic Competition •A Spatial Interpretation of Monopolistic Competition •Historical Note: Hotelling’sHot Dog Vendors •Consumer Preferences and Advertising Economics Hence the demand is less elastic for a price cut. Rivals’ reactions could have had no effect on the firm’s demand curve were it not for the fact that their products are substitutes. The process of competitive price cutting to capture the market goes on as long as the price exceeds the marginal cost of the firm at its current sales. Cournot’s oligopoly’ s smooth continuum stretching from monopoly at one end to perfect competition at the other has also come under question. Looking for a flexible role? The model predicts price rigidity where there is asymmetric rival reaction, and the products of the rivals are substitutes. In some cases, competition in terms of price changes seems more logical than quantity competition, especially in the short run. The kinked demand hypothesis explains price rigidity in non-collusive oligopolies. The Assumptions of […] Content Guidelines 2. This means that for each level of firm 1’s output (q 1 ), firm 2 will choose the level of output (q 2 ) that put it on the iso-profit curve farthest to the left as illustrated in Fig. To do this we would make use of the concept of reaction functions (RF). All firms produce homogeneousproducts. 24.2. In such a situation, a firm which raises its price will still have a part of the market to cater to. Then it will earn positive by raising p1 to just below p2 but above c. The same case goes to Firm 2. His model was based on Bertrand duopoly model excepting that both firms are capacity constrained. We compare an m-firm Cournot model with a hierarchical Stackelberg model where m Firms choose outputs sequentially. Uploader Agreement. While the first mover in a Stackelberg duopoly earns more than a Cournot duopolist, this is not necessarily true for m > 2. In that case, it would be called a follower. Thus, demand is less elastic for a price cut at p, but more elastic for a price increase at the same price p. This means that the marginal revenue will be less below p, and higher above. The airlines industry in US does not operate under any of the four models i.e. In this case, p1 = p2 = p is the Bertrand-Edgeworth Equilibrium. 2. The Cournot solution obtains when both firms choose to be followers. (a) In the Cournot model firms make assumptions about their rivals' choice of price / output. This explains the higher elasticity of the demand curve above the going price. Finally, the price rigidity may also be expected to be less if there are no rivals, that is, when the firm is a monopoly. Cournot’s duopolist can be characterized as naive since he never learns from his experience which shows his rival’s sensitivity to his own sales decisions. Stackleberg develops a model designed to overcome this naivete. • Shortest way of controlling/earning profit by controlling the supply. The intersection of the two functions is where both firms charge p1 = p2 = c and neither of them would want to deviate because if one wants to lower its price, it will gain losses but if it tries to higher the price, it will earn zero sales. The Cournot duopoly results can be generalised to an oligopoly with n sellers. Generally, if capacity constraints exist, there is no static equilibrium i.e. At this price, A supplies a of the market and B supplies b.

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